Which Of The Following Is Also Called Avoidance Learning?

Techniques of Electric Shock Motivation

FRED A. MASTERSON , BYRON A. CAMPBELL , in Methods in Psychobiology: Specialized Laboratory Techniques in Neuropsychology and Neurobiology, 1972

Eastward Activeness, Punishment and Abstention as a Role of Daze Level: the Validity of the Equal Aversion Technique

This department has two purposes. First, nosotros shall give some representative examples of the effects of grid shock intensity on the rats' action, penalization-learning performance, and avoidance-learning performance. Second, we shall compare these behaviors across equally aversive levels of shock from several dissimilar shock sources. These comparisons will illustrate the trans-situational validity of the equal aversion technique described in the previous section. In all these examples, we shall be speaking of rats and of grid flooring shock.

Effigy xi shows daze-elicited activity as a office of shock level for seven shock sources: the 500 volt CCAC source, a constant current DC source, and v different FIAC sources. The shock intensities of these sources have been equated along the abscissa by means of equal disfavor functions. Just two of the specific shock intensity scales are shown: an ma calibration for the 500 volt CCAC source (upper scale) and a volts scale for the 150K-ohm FIAC source (lower scale). It will be noted that the activity curves are similar for all seven sources.

The efficacies of different levels of stupor equally punishments are shown in the left panel of Fig. 12. Rats were punished past brief shocks in lodge to facilitate the extinction of a shuttle avoidance response. The number of trials required for extinction are plotted against daze level for three FIAC sources: 35K, 150K, and 600K-ohm. The specific 150K-ohm stupor voltages are listed forth the abscissa.

The effect of shock level on the performance of a rails abstention response is shown in the right panel of Fig. 12 for the same 3 FIAC sources. Again, the specific 150K-ohm shock voltages are listed along the abscissa.

In each of the in a higher place three examples, equally aversive shocks produced the same beliefs. Thus, the equal aversion functions derived with the spatial preference apparatus are valid over a wide range of situations.

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Aversive Learning Situations: Apparatus and Procedures

Eastward.J. CAPALDI , ELIZABETH D. CAPALDI , in Methods in Psychobiology: Specialized Laboratory techniques in Neuropsychology and Neurobiology, 1972

(ii) 2-style shuttle.

In the 2-way shuttle situation (Moyer and Korn, 1964), the procedure is much the same as in one-fashion shuttle, except it is not necessary to remove the animal from the safe compartment to the get-go compartment between trials. Rather, once the subject has crossed from one side to the other, post-obit an appropriate inter-trial interval, the alert betoken comes on, and the animal is required to shuttle to the opposite side.

In 2-way shuttle, in that location seems to be little relationship between intensity of shock and speed of avoidance learning ( Moyer and Korn, 1964). However, in 1-way shuttle, the greater the intensity of the aversive stimulus, the faster is avoidance learning (McAllister et al., 1971). This discrepancy in findings is attributed to fear acquired by situational cues, since in two-manner shuttle, the fauna is shocked in both compartments, and thus comes to fear both compartments, the more than so the greater the intensity of daze. Thus, in two-style shuttle, as intensity of shock increases, while the animal'due south motivation to perform the avoidance reaction may also increase, greater fear of the situational cues may counteract this trend. In ane-style shuttle, however, the animal can discriminate the condom compartment from the daze compartment, and thus abstention learning is facilitated as the intensity of shock increases. If McAllister et al. are correct, information technology would seem that i-way shuttle provides a less confounded situation than 2-fashion shuttle, and for many experimenters one-way shuttle might exist the situation of option.

Dogs have ordinarily been employed in shuttle-boxes (Solomon and Wynne, 1954) and there seems to be no reason why either one-fashion shuttle or two-style shuttle might non be employed with appropriate modification for a slap-up variety of organisms. A useful survey of the major findings in discriminated abstention learning has been provided past D'Amato (1970).

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Mammals

J.R. Manns , H. Eichenbaum , in Evolution of Nervous Systems, 2007

3.33.four.one Early Evidence on Hippocampal Part

The mammalian hippocampus appeared over 200 Mya, but the study of its function began in earnest only 50 years agone. The earliest and however compelling insights virtually hippocampal part in memory began with the dramatic characterization of the patient HM (Scoville and Milner, 1957). In an attempt to alleviate debilitating seizures, an experimental surgical procedure was performed in which big portions of both his right and left medial temporal lobes were resected. The ablation included large portions of the hippocampal region, the entorhinal cortex, and the perirhinal cortex (Corkin et al., 1997). The surgery reduced the intensity of the seizures only also had the unexpected and profound effect of leaving HM about incapable of acquiring new memories beyond a broad range of modalities of information. In hitting contrast, his perceptual and motor capacities and other cerebral abilities, including language and attention, appeared normal. In improver, HM's capacity to acquire and retain data in heed for a brief period was also intact, although the new data was lost equally presently as his attention was directed away from it. Although the majority of his childhood memories survived the surgery, there was a retrograde loss of memories caused for several years prior to the surgery. The main interpretation of the findings was that the hippocampus was important for the consolidation of curt-term memories into lasting long-term memories.

Immediately following the reports on HM, at that place were several attempts to determine whether the hippocampus was too involved in memory in monkeys and rats. Results from a large number of studies in rats of operant conditioning, sensory discrimination, maze learning, and abstention learning were mixed and inconclusive (reviewed in Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Eichenbaum and Cohen, 2001; O'Keefe and Nadel, 1978). The results from rats ranged from severe performance deficits to normal performance. Some studies even observed facilitation of learning following damage to the hippocampus. Thus, based on these early results, one possibility was that the hippocampus served retentiveness in humans only some other nonmemory cognitive function, such equally response inhibition, in experimental animals.

The 1970s saw several important ideas sally regarding the function of the hippocampus in experimental animals. Hirsh (1974) suggested the hippocampus was critical for context-dependent retrieval but not for modifications of behavior "along the performance line." Olton et al. (1979) suggested that the hippocampus was critical for what he called working memory (retention for single events) just non for reference memory (learning that can be applied across many events). O'Keefe and Nadel (1978) put forth the idea that the hippocampus is selectively involved in map-like spatial retention simply non in learning guided past nonspatial cues. The ideas were far from consensual as to what specific function might exist supported past the hippocampus in experimental animals, merely all the views shared in common two features. First, all agreed that the hippocampus was involved in some aspect of retention. Second, all agreed that memory was not a single power but was instead capable of existence separated into multiple forms of retention, one that depended on the hippocampus and others that did not.

The spatial memory view of the hippocampus was the most successful of these early ideas. The thought of map-like spatial memory appeared well-suited to rats, for whom a memory of the area's geographical layout would be advantageous in supporting nighttime foraging. Further, the spatial map theory was supported by compelling results from studies in which action potentials of unmarried hippocampal neurons were recorded while rats performed spatial tasks or merely explored an open field. The main finding of these studies was that many of the principal cells recorded from CA1 and CA3, which are noted for their very low baseline activity, increased their firing rate dramatically when the rat was in a item location within the chamber (Muller et al., 1987; O'Keefe, 1979; O'Keefe and Dostrovsky, 1971). O'Keefe and Nadel's (1978) estimation of these findings was that the firing of hippocampal neurons signaled occupancy of a particular coordinate locus, a identify field, within a cognitive map established in the hippocampus.

At the same fourth dimension that these ideas emerged from work in experimental animals, the concept of multiple memory systems was beingness refined in parallel by work in man amnesic patients. Work with patient HM had already demonstrated that the hippocampus was not needed to acquire new motor skills (Milner, 1962). Notwithstanding these findings were typically set aside as motor-based exceptions to the general view that all retentiveness depended on the hippocampus. A central finding came when Cohen and Squire (1980) observed intact learning outside the domain of motor skills in amnesic patients. Patients and age-matched volunteers were asked to read mirror-reversed words over the grade of several days. Patients and control participants both improved their reading speed with practice, only only the control participants were able to draw subsequently the details of the testing state of affairs. These results helped brand the betoken that the human hippocampus was important for retention in the everyday sense of the discussion but was not of import for other examples of procedural memory, such as the conquering of cognitive skills, that are expressed through operation rather than recollection.

The observation of hippocampal cells with place fields in rats was compelling, even so for those who worked with amnesic patients, the idea of a special part for the hippocampus in spatial retentiveness appeared to ignore a large torso of data on HM and other amnesic patients indicating a critical function for the hippocampus in nonspatial retentivity, including verbal retentiveness of recently encountered events that were not prominently spatial in nature. This disjuncture in the findings on rodents and humans exacerbated the already widely held view that the hippocampus supported singled-out functions in humans and animals.

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Intolerance of uncertainty and habit

Belinda Favaloro , Ahmed A. Moustafa , in Cognitive, Clinical, and Neural Aspects of Drug Addiction, 2020

Intolerance of uncertainty in addiction

Not all individuals develop an habit to drugs; some individuals are more vulnerable than others. Vulnerability factors may include certain personality traits, such equally behavioral inhibition (BI) and intolerance to uncertainty (IU), that cause biases in decision-making, such as pursuing a familiar source of reward rather than exploring other sources. BI is the tendency to withdraw from or avoid novel, threatening or uncertain situations; reactivity to these situations is often enhanced (Radell, Myers, Beck, Moustafa, & Allen, 2016). BI may predispose an individual to interpret ambiguous data more negatively, therefore contributing to their avoidant response (Radell et al., 2016). Behaviourally inhibited individuals showroom enhanced associative learning (Allen, Myers, & Servatius, 2016; Holloway, Allen, Myers, & Servatius, 2014 ) and increased avoidance learning ( Sheynin et al., 2014), in other words learning to avoid an aversive situation. This blazon of learning has been reported in several addiction populations (Sheynin et al., 2016), likewise every bit in individuals with anxiety disorders (Radell et al., 2016).

IU is a personality trait characterized by the tendency to perceive uncertain situations negatively and make attempts to avert them (Nelson, Kessel, Jackson, & Hajcak, 2016). This perception may include beliefs that uncertainty is unfair, has unfavorable consequences, as well as other beliefs regarding the capacity to cope with the unpredictable and the necessity of certainty (Buhr & Dugas, 2002). In addition, information technology often involves an underlying fright of the unknown (Carleton, 2012).

IU tin can be split into two factors, which are prospective IU and inhibitory IU. Prospective IU refers to the desire for predictability and actively seeking out certainty, ofttimes exhibited through cognitive distress. Inhibitory IU describes the paralysis of both cognitions and actions when facing uncertain situations (Tanovic, Hajcak, & Joormann, 2018). To measure intolerance of incertitude, the Intolerance of Doubtfulness Scale (IUS) (Buhr & Dugas, 2002) and the Intolerance of Uncertainty Index (IUI) (Carleton, Gosselin, & Asmundson, 2010) are often used. These are self-written report measures that appraise reactions to uncertain and cryptic situations. The IUS measures both cognitive distress (prospective IU) and behavioral inhibition (inhibitory IU) elicited by uncertainty (Nelson et al., 2016).

Almost every determination fabricated requires an individual to consider some blazon of dubiousness or unknown information. The capacity to tolerate dubiety can impact an individuals' decision-making process, including taking additional fourth dimension to seek more than data before making a choice or choosing more than firsthand options in gild to reduce the amount of time spent waiting. Waiting for an uncertain outcome or reward may be considered aversive and ofttimes elicits negative emotions, and the desire to finish the menses of uncertainty outweighs the want to wait for a greater gain (Ladouceur, Blais, Freeston, & Dugas, 1998). Individuals with higher IU frequently find uncertainty to be negative and stressful, and believe that it should be avoided (Buhr & Dugas, 2002). They also tend to use ineffective trouble solving strategies in uncertain situations and translate ambiguity as threatening (Ladouceur, Talbot, & Dugas, 1997).

A mutual finding is that individuals with college IU tend to choose low-probability firsthand rewards over loftier-probability delayed rewards; this impulsive behavior is known as delay discounting (Luhmann, Ishida, & Hajcak, 2011). In general, virtually people tend to perceive future rewards every bit less certain (Patak & Reynolds, 2007). The value of rewards that are uncertain is reduced when the probability of receiving that reward is unknown. A reduced tolerance for dubiety may strengthen this belief and result in more immediate, or less idea-out, choices to be made (i.e. delay discounting). Worries nearly non receiving the future reward could reduce the subjective value of the delayed reward enough to make the immediate reward more attractive, even if it is not (Ladouceur et al., 1997).

Tanovic, Gee, and Joormann (2018) and Tanovic, Hajcak, et al. (2018) found that people who found it difficult to wait in a state of uncertainty were characterized by college levels of neuroticism, inhibitory IU, and worry. These individuals were more likely to engage in filibuster discounting beliefs, suggesting that inhibitory IU may influence decision-making in this way. Another possible explanation for delay discounting may be that these individuals are not willing to inhibit their want to choose firsthand rewards for long enough to look for the delayed advantage (Tanovic, Gee, et al., 2018; Tanovic, Hajcak, et al., 2018). This would suggest that restructuring cognitions regarding the value of waiting might exist effective in reducing impulsive controlling.

In different forms of drug addictions, deficits in processing reward-related information and managing reward-driven behavior are mutual. The controlling procedure is contradistinct, which influences the evolution, maintenance of addiction and risk of relapse. Drug use is frequently a coping mechanism for distress or negative bear upon; subsequently individuals with this coping mode are at an increased run a risk of drug dependence (Hasin & Carpenter, 1999; Kraemer, McLeish, & O'Bryan, 2015; Park & Levenson, 2002). Equally previously mentioned, IU is associated with the tendency to make quick decisions to alleviate distress and to cope or avert negative emotions. This suggests that individuals with greater IU may be at a college run a risk of using drugs to cope with the negative bear on associated with uncertainty, it therefore may increment vulnerability to addiction (Kraemer et al., 2015).

Individuals with substance use disorders showroom delay discounting behavior, as they tend to choose immediate small rewards over larger uncertain rewards (Clark & Robbins, 2002; Hefner & Starr, 2017; MacKillop et al., 2011). This pattern of beliefs appears to be greater in drug users than healthy individuals (Carleton, Norton, & Asmundson, 2007; Garami et al., 2017; Hefner & Starr, 2017; Nelson et al., 2016; Radell et al., 2018). When IU was explored in individuals with substance apply disorders, specifically with opioid employ disorder (Carleton et al., 2007; Garami et al., 2017) and individuals on methadone maintenance therapy (Radell et al., 2018), several studies found that substance users possessed higher levels of IU than healthy individuals. Therefore, greater levels of IU in individuals appear to be associated with increased delay discounting beliefs, which suggests an association with IU and impulsive behavior or decision-making.

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The office of associative fear and avoidance learning in anxiety disorders: Gaps and directions for future research

Andre Pittig , ... Michelle G. Craske , in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2018

5.1 Mechanisms of abstention

Avoidance learning was traditionally conceptualized equally instrumental learning process. In instrumental learning, responses to a stimulus are reinforced or weakened by their positive or negative outcomes. In the classical two-factor theory ( Miller, 1948; Mowrer, 1960, 1951; Mowrer and Lamoreaux, 1946), abstention is assumed to be negatively reinforced as the aversive land of fear is reduced after an avoidance response is performed. Importantly, there is also a Pavlovian component to avoidance learning (Krypotos et al., 2014; LeDoux et al., 2017; Rescorla and Soloman, 1967). Recently, it has been suggested that abstention learning involves dissimilar sequential learning processes (LeDoux et al., 2017). Aversive Pavlovian learning, every bit the initial process, results in defensive reactions such as attentive freezing or reflexive startle responses. More flexible avoidance responses are later on learned in relation to their outcomes, i.east., are shaped by instrumental processes. Finally, these responses may turn into avoidance habits due to overtraining that do not depend on outcomes anymore (LeDoux et al., 2017; Ruge and Wolfensteller, 2010). Thus, abstention forms an essential aspect of associative learning processes involved in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders.

Other theoretical approaches take highlighted the stardom betwixt reflexive and reflective processes in the learning and expression of abstention (see Arnaudova et al., 2017; Krypotos et al., 2015). Reflexive processes and responses are rapid, automatic, and linked to automated stimulus-response associations. In dissimilarity, reflective processes and responses are boring, elaborate, controlled, and regulated past expected outcomes and current goals (e.g., Strack and Deutsch, 2014). The predominance of each of these systems for defensive beliefs seems to depend on the proximity of threat. In animals, different threat proximities are associated with distinct states of the defense cascade (Fanselow and Lester, 1988). In line with this threat proximity continuum, human defensive behavior may exist more than strongly guided past reflexive processes under proximal threat or by higher-order reflective processes under distal threat, with each procedure associated with distinct underlying neural mechanisms and physiological responses (Löw et al., 2015; Mobbs et al., 2010, 2009, 2007; Wendt et al., 2017). Integrating the concept of reflexive and reflective responses with the sequential learning processes of avoidance, we suggest that defensive reactions as result of Pavlovian learning and habitual responses every bit effect of habit learning represent rather reflexive responses that are guided by preceding stimuli. Avoidance responses shaped by instrumental learning processes contain a stronger reflective component. Given these different learning and response pathways, their distinct contribution to maladaptive avoidance in anxiety disorders needs to exist addressed.

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Festschrift in Honor of Jeffrey Greyness - Issue 2: Schizophrenia and Consciousness

Urs Meyer , ... Benjamin Grand. Yee , in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2005

Conditioning . Abstention learning was indexed past number of avoidance response per 10-trial cake. Learning was evident in all groups, as indicated by a highly significant main effect of blocks ( F=170.17, df=9.675, P<0.001; see Fig. 6). At that place was a clear presence of the USPEE in the control grouping, i.due east. with the US-PE subjects acquiring the abstention response slower than the NPE controls. Comparable results were obtained in the 2.v mg/kg PolyI:C group. However, the USPEE was not evident in the 5 mg/kg PolyI:C and the 10 mg/kg PolyI:C groups. A ii×2×4×10 (sex×pre-exposure×treatment×10-trials blocks) split-plot ANOVA yielded a significant interaction between pre-exposure and treatment (F=iii.51, df=iii.75, P<0.05). Subsequent mail service hoc pair-wise comparisons confirmed that significant presence of the USPEE was only detected in the command and the 2.5 mg/kg PolyI:C groups (P<0.05).

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Adaptive behaviour under disharmonize: Deconstructing extinction, reversal, and active avoidance learning

Elizabeth E. Manning , ... Mihaela D. Iordanova , in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2021

4.one What are the reinforcers of avoidance learning?

Debate nigh whether avoidance learning produces outcome dependent actions has focussed, in part, on identifying the 'reinforcer' of avoidance learning. The "two-factor" theory – a dominant theory in the field – suggests that avoidance learning occurs in two distinct phases ( Mowrer and Lamoreaux, 1946). Kickoff, Pavlovian fear conditioning generates an clan between a stimulus (S; e.thousand. tone) and the aversive event (e.g. stupor; S-O_aversive), so that the stimulus itself comes to elicit fear. Next, the organism learns to perform (instrumental) avoidance responses to the stimulus, which cause omission of the aversive outcome and reduces fear to the stimulus (R-O_{fear reduction}). The stimulus tin can then be considered as a "alert signal" that indicates when avoidance responses can be made. During the instrumental phase, learning is thought to be supported through negative reinforcement, because behaviours are 'reinforced' by the reduction or removal of an aversive effect.

Two-factor theory suggests that negative reinforcement of the instrumental avoidance responses is mediated by fear reduction resulting from removal or termination of the fear-evoking stimulus. In that location is some evidence to support this (Cain and LeDoux, 2007; Miller, 1948; Overmier and Bull, 1969; Rescorla and Solomon, 1967), however it has also been repeatedly demonstrated that acquisition of avoidance learning is associated with reduced expression of fear-associated behaviours (e.g. freezing) during the stimulus (Bravo-Rivera et al., 2014; Choi et al., 2010; Fernando et al., 2014b). This reduction in fear would exist expected to decrease negative reinforcement and potentially extinction of avoidance responses, but this is non observed in well-trained animals. This suggests that a process other than fear reduction may exist responsible for reinforcing avoidance responses, at least once avoidance responding has been established and fear is low.

What this culling process might be is unclear, but in that location is evidence suggesting that prophylactic signals could play a part. Safe signals are stimuli that are nowadays when an abstention response is made, such as a tone or contextual stimuli associated with a safe area in the testing environment. In dissimilarity to warning signals, condom signals positively reinforce behaviour, and there is some evidence that they human action as a positive reinforcer during avoidance learning (Fernando et al., 2014b). Interestingly, it has also been demonstrated that the presentation of a condom signal following avoidance responses can supplant warning signals to promote avoidance learning, suggesting that nether some conditions warning signals (and their termination) may act every bit a rubber signal that positively reinforces avoidance responses (Bolles and Grossen, 1969; Bower et al., 1965). Overall, while at that place is stiff evidence that specific outcomes can reinforce instrumental avoidance responding, it remains unclear what conditions are associated with negative vs positive reinforcement (or some combination of both) as the driver of this instrumental avoidance learning.

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Special Section: Developmental determinants of sensitivity and resistance to stress: A tribute to Seymour "Gig" Levine

Regina M. Sullivan , Parker J. Holman , in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2010

This suppression of fear/avoidance learning has also been demonstrated in rat pups withal in the sensitive menstruum for attachment learning. Specifically, pairing a novel scent with a painful stimulus, such every bit 0.5 mA stupor or tailpinch (rather than the typical milk or stroking), results in pups approaching the olfactory property when information technology is next encountered (Camp and Rudy, 1988; Haroutunian and Campbell, 1979; Sullivan et al., 1986). Notably, this preferred aroma induced through hurting pairings also takes on the power to control the constellation of pup behaviors commonly controlled past the natural maternal odor (Fig. i; approach, social beliefs with the female parent and nipple attachment: Raineki et al., submitted for publication).

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Chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairments: A systematic review of the creature literature

A. Matsos , I.N. Johnston , in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2019

three.3.2.five.1 Conditioned avoidance

MTX has a dose dependent issue on avoidance learning when a warning signal predicts a foot daze. Low (1.5 mg/kg) and high dose (two mg/kg) MTX reduced the number of compartment crossings to avert a pes shock. Yet, rats administered the higher dose of MTX performed significantly worse ( Madhyastha et al., 2002). Cisplatin failed to produce cerebral impairment presently after treatment but, when re-tested 2–4 weeks later, cisplatin-treated mice exhibited increased escape latencies and a reduced number of compartment crossings (Vocal et al., 2010).

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Appetitive conditioning: Neural bases and implications for psychopathology

C. Martin-Soelch , ... M. Ernst , in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2007

Interestingly, ACC neuronal firing in response to discriminative abstention learning has been shown to be affected by amygdala lesions ( Poremba and Gabriel, 1997). The CeN might be specially involved as information technology influences the early acquisition of CR's during discriminative avoidance learning, and modulates indirectly the anterior cingulate through its projections to the ventral tegmentum. On the other paw, the BLA seems to collaborate generally with sensory and ACC regions to mediate the instrumental part of discriminative avoidance learning. Equally mentioned earlier, the BLA would aid to maintain the affective value of the US representation on line (Gabriel et al., 2003).

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